First came not consciousness, but art and language – a controversial hypothesis

The article presents the hypothesis of American psychologist Julian Jaynes that modern introspective consciousness emerged only around the second millennium BCE, after humanity had mastered language and created art. The theory of the "bicameral mind" suggests that ancient people perceived internal signals as commands from gods. As evidence, Jaynes analyzes the Iliad and the Odyssey. The hypothesis sparks debate in the scientific community.

The article discusses the controversial hypothesis of American psychologist Julian Jaynes, presented in his book "The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind" (1972). Jaynes distinguished between basic cognitive processes (information processing, memory, planning) and self-reflection. He argued that modern introspective consciousness formed late — around the second millennium BCE, after humanity had already mastered language, created art, and complex societies. The key catalyst, in his view, was language: metaphors and analogies allowed the construction of a mental model of the self. The theory of the "bicameral mind" posits that in ancient times, the brain hemispheres functioned autonomously, and people perceived internal signals as external commands from gods or rulers. As evidence, Jaynes analyzes ancient literature: in the Iliad, heroes act on divine instructions and lack self-awareness, while in the Odyssey, characters weigh alternatives and make conscious decisions. The hypothesis sparked fierce criticism; biologist Richard Dawkins called it "either absolute nonsense or a stroke of genius." Most modern scientists reject the idea of such a late formation of consciousness, but the work continues to stimulate discussions about the role of language and culture.